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Democracy in America Today - 1747 Words

Democracy in America Today Pos/110 October 16, 2011 Final Project: Democracy in America Since the beginning of American Democracy it has been morphed from the founder’s format. With all its changes, it still functions as a well-constructed form of democracy that supports our nation. American democracy has both strengths and weaknesses. Government spending or over-spending is a core issue facing our nation in these economically troubled times. There are many points to be addressed regarding American government today. Adjustments within American democracy have caused us to land in our current situation of economic uncertainty. Some of these developments have actually had a negative impact on democracy and the people†¦show more content†¦The Constitution is at risk of being overrun in our current political climate. The gap between the rich and poor in American society had been narrowed during the last 50 years of the last century. It has been widened during the past decade and threatens our social stability. Many people like to say that America is a place of equality and opportunity. In my opinion, it is still a place of disparity and inequality. The most basic element of our democratic process that should be its greatest strength has become our greatest weakness. This is a great issue among those in our society who cannot find access to services or opportunity and is swept under the rug by those members of our society who have been able to find a way to succeed inside the system. A new type of inequality has crept over us in the recent past. It is the way in which government shows bias to one group of citizens over another. These economic disparities strengthen the cause of those who have against those who do not have. They relate specifically to the unequal distribution of resources, education and income potential. Those members of our society who have been minimized have much less political voice and therefore can expect to continue to receive less in the way of equal treatment and equal access to services and education. Reviewing the Constitution and American Democracy based on what I have learned in this course, I find that the Bill ofShow MoreRelatedOur Founding Fathers Affect on the Past, Present, and Future Essay1395 Words   |  6 Pagesdirect democracy. They believed that the â€Å"follies† of direct democracy far outweighed any virtues it might possess (Politics in American pg. 76). According to an essay by Rose Wilder Lane (Lane, 1943), â€Å"George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, James Madison, and James Monroe feared democracy.† The founders believed that the Constitution left all other governmental powers to the states (Politics in American 2009 pg. 133). Our Founding Fathers never intended for America to becomeRead MoreCritical Analysis of Alex de Tocquevilles Democracy in America1366 Words   |  6 PagesAnalysis of Alexis de Tocqueville’s Democracy in America Alexis de Tocqueville’s visit to the United States in 1831 prompted his work Democracy in America. This was supposed to be a chance for him to take a look at the American prison system. However, it was obvious from his writing that he looked at every aspect of American culture. In Democracy in America, he takes a look at how democracy works and the pitfalls that could bring about the downfall of democracy. Throughout his travels he noticedRead More Americas Democracy Essay1091 Words   |  5 PagesAmericas Democracy The United States of America is a republic, or representative democracy. Democracy, a word that comes to us from Greek, literally means the people rule (Romance, July 8). 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They believed that the â€Å"follies† of direct democracy far outweighed any virtues it might possess (Politics in American pg. 76). According to an essay by Rose Wilder Lane (Lane, 1943), â€Å"George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, James Madison, and James Monroe feared democracy.† The founders believed that the Constitution left all other governmental powers to the states (Politics in American 2009 pg. 133). Our Founding Fathers never intended for America to becomeRead MoreEssay on Is Democracy Sustainable in Latin America?1274 Words   |  6 PagesIs Democracy Sustainable in Latin America? In order to determine if democracy is sustainable in Latin America, it is important to understand or at least have an idea of what democracy is. There are several types of democracy and each is different. According to the English dictionary, democracy is â€Å" a government by the people; especially: rule of the majority by a government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by themRead MoreThe American Empire: Exceptionalist Political, Economic, and Public Policies1446 Words   |  6 PagesAmerica is like the 800-pound gorilla in every room in the world. When it gets a cold, the world wheezes, when it has a tingle, the world scratches. When it neglects to act, it regularly sends a swell around the globe. For some, it is a model for different societies to imitate. This thought of American exceptionalism really has numerous roots and numerous varieties. One is the old Puritan idea, in light of a John Winthrop sermon, that America is a city upon a hill. T his notion of America as GodsRead MorePericles, The Grandfather Of Freedom Essay1642 Words   |  7 Pagesin his own people, but he also wanted Athens to be recognized as a perfect example for democracy. Though he did perish and Athens had fallen, it stuck in history just as he wanted it to be, a perfect example. Proof of this lies in the fact that throughout history, American presidents and revolutionists have been using this speech as their guidelines to the perfect America. It’s a lesson that the people of today need to realize, a way of understanding that people need to open up to. WithRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence And The Constitution1668 Words   |  7 Pagesachievements of humanity as a whole has been the development of democracy. This idea sprouted with the growth of history’s most successful and innovative civilizations; the Greeks and the Romans. Their enormous populations called for a fair and just way of governing. Why not allow control to stem from the populations own members? This logical way of thought is still evident in the world today, especially in the democracy of the United States of America. Upon examination of America’s most valuable texts, theRead MoreCorruption Of Democracy : America s Democracy1214 Words   |  5 PagesToday, our nation s democracy is unarguably only alive on a small scale. Much of America s population, does not uphold a civic role that consistently supplements a successful democracy. Corruption of democracy stems directly from Americans not being able to actively take responsibility for thei r own society or their own futures. As a result of individuals lacking responsibility in various ways, flaws in our society continue to define everything we are as part of America. Everyone in the country

Dracula Paper free essay sample

The conflict of science versus superstition is drawn out throughout the whole novel. We know that some of our main characters, Jon, Van Helsing and Dracula all depict one of the two, or both. Stoker does not make a point that religion is more important than science, and vice versa. I personally believe that he tries to portray that both science and religion are important to the novel. Through the series of events that partake within the duration of the novel there are many things that one can explain but not the other. But, both science and religion cannot explain everything just themselves. Three of the main characters all portray science, superstition or a little bit of both, science and superstition, representing that both cannot exist without the other. Jon Harker, our main character represents one hundred percent science, we are really shown this in the first four chapters in the novel. We will write a custom essay sample on Dracula Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Jon who knows nothing but science tries to take what he knows about science and tries to apply it to Dracula who represents the opposite of Jon, one hundred percent superstition or religion. There are so many things that Harker tries while he stays at Dracula’s castle. Initially he is uneasy about staying with in the castle, but Draculas warm welcome calms Harker momentarily. As he settles in he observes Dracula’s physical traits, pointed ears, extremely pale skin and exceptionally sharp teeth, Harker becomes uneasy again. He starts to pick up on small things such as why there are no mirrors in the castle, and why he doesn’t show up during the day. He attempts to explain this with science and he struggles to do so. As Jonathan is trying to find a way to escape the castle he has a strange meeting with three vampire girls, which is unusual for him. I was afraid to raise my eyelids, but looked out and saw perfectly under the lashes. The fair girl went on her knees, and bent over me, fairly gloating. There was a deliberate voluptuousness which was both thrilling and repulsive, and as she arched her neck she actually licked her lips like an animal, till I could see in the moonlight the moisture shining on the scarlet lips and on the red tongue as it lapped the white sharp teeth. Lower and lower went her head as the lips went below the range of my mouth and chin and seemed to fasten on my throat. I could feel the soft,  shivering touch of the lips on the supersensitive skin of my throat, and the hard dents of two sharp teeth, just touching and pausing there. I closed my eyes in a languorous ecstacy and waited waited with beating heart. (Stoker, 57) Jon Harker is not sure what is happening and who these girls are and he doesn’t learn to understand this until Dracula shows up and tells them to back of because Jon is his. I think this is when it really settles in for Jon that science cannot explain why Dracula crawls up the sides of the walls of the castle or has razor sharp teeth. You are clever man, friend John; you reason well, and your wit is bold; but you are too prejudiced. You do not let your eyes see nor your ears hear, and that which is outside your daily life is not of account to you. Ah, it is the fault of our science that it wants to explain all; and if it explain not, then it says there is nothing to explain. Van Helsing laments the narrow and prejudiced vision of Seward, the rational man of science who understands nothing about the ultimate cause of Lucys death and the Un-dead Lucys preying upon children. If Seward has no data, he is unable to draw any conclusion and therefore unable to act. He does not believe in vampires because there is no proof, so he is vulnerable to the Counts evil. Van Helsing, in contrast, knows this territory because he has kept an open mind and has drawn upon a broad base of knowledge, from modern science to ancient lore. A brave mans blood is the best thing on this earth when a woman is in trouble.' (Chapter 12) Van Helsing asks Quincey Morris to donate his blood to save Lucys life. Throughout the novel, there is a morally upstanding quality to the blood that the men donate to Lucy. In Chapter 10, Van Helsing comments that Holmwood is so young and strong and of blood so pure that we need not defibrinate it. The pure and wholesome blood of these fine young men stands in contrast to the tainted, death-dealing blood of the Count, who infects his victims with the curse of vampirism.

The Skill Of Running A State Essay free essay sample

, Research Paper The Skill of Runing a State Among the most widely read of the Renaissance minds was Niccolo Machiavelli. Born in Florence, Italy in 1469, he became a politician who retired from public service and devoted the proceeding old ages to composing about history, political doctrine, and even dramas. His political doctrine # 8217 ; s concentrated on the accomplishments required for successfully running a province. Machiavelli focused on the manner things are, instead than the manner things ought to be. In 1513, Machiavelli wrote his best known work, # 8220 ; The Prince # 8221 ; . The implicit in subject provinces that a successful prince must show virtuousnesss, such as strength and accomplishment, in favourable and inauspicious state of affairss. Therefore, Machiavelli proposes that a swayer must obtain a good repute by fall backing to any agencies necessary given the fortunes. Although, it is desirable to be both loved and feared by one # 8217 ; s topics, Machiavelli declares it is far safer for the swayer to be feared. We will write a custom essay sample on The Skill Of Running A State Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Therefore, in # 8220 ; The Prince # 8221 ; , Machiavelli argues the significance of a prince to be feared and avoid being hated by his topics, which can be achieved through fraudulence and corruptness, in order to keep the stableness of the province. # 8220 ; The Prince # 8221 ; is one of the first scrutinies of political relations and scientific discipline from a strictly scientific and rational position. Machiavelli theorizes that the province is merely created if the people cooperate and work to keep it. The province is besides one of adult male s greatest enterprises, and the province takes precedency over everything else. The province should be one s primary focal point, and keeping the sovereignty of the province is one s most critical concern. The province is founded on the power of its military. Therefore, a strong armed forces is critical to keeping the province. Machiavelli believes that work forces respect power, but they will take advantage of kindness. He believes that when given the chance, one must destruct wholly, because if one does non, he will surely be destroyed. The prince should take the military, and he has to be intelligent. An effectual politician can do speedy and intelligent picks about the jobs that invariably arise before him. He must besides hold virtuousness, which means he is strong, confident, gifted, every bit good as smart. A prince can non be unsure, because uncertainness is a mark of failing. Fortune controls half of human s actions, and Man will command the other half. Virtue is the best defence for luck, and virtuousness must be used in order to maintain luck in cheque. The prince must take advantage of state of affairss based entirely on if it is best for the province. He should take his determinations based on modern-day and historical illustrations. A prince can non see whether his Acts of the Apostless are moral or immoral, and he alternatively must move in an indifferent mode for the province. Furthermore, it does non count how the province achieves its ends, every bit long as these ends are achieved Machiavelli farther concludes that it is hard to be loved and feared at the same time. Harmonizing to Machiavelli, the reply is that it would be desirable to be both, but since that is hard, it is much safer to be feared than loved. The job with being loved is that it will non needfully maintain you from acquiring trampled. Indeed, if people are afraid of their prince, so they will be loyal. If the people fear their swayer, than they would non even contemplate about cabaling against him. Therefore, # 8220 ; fright is sustained by a apprehension of penalty that neer forsakes you # 8221 ; . Men will waver to pique a swayer that has made himself feared. It is merely a natural portion of human nature to non volitionally contend person that they are afraid of. Being feared and non despised is a dependable mechanism that a prince should use. Equally long as the prince abstains from impounding his citizen # 8217 ; s belongings and adult females, he can outdo avoid being overthrown. Furth ermore, if it is deemed necessary to put to death person, it should follow through merely if there is an obvious and merely cause. For all the people will of all time inquire of their swayer is for him to keep their best involvements in all important affairs. Machiavelli besides explains that the crowned head must take whatever action is necessary to keep order in society. In clip this will ensue in the most compassionate pick excessively. Machiavelli explains that, Cesare Borgia, by utilizing inhuman treatment was able to accomplish order and obeisance in Romangna. This contrast with the inactivity of the Florentines, who allowed internal struggle to develop in Pistoia, resulted in desolation of the metropolis. Therefore, a figure of extremely seeable executings can be really effectual in commanding the people and forestalling a major eruption of force and slaying. Machiavelli besides cites the enormous military successes of Hannibal. Even though Hannibal led an ground forces of different races over foreign dirt, he neer had any discord because of his repute of extreme inhuman treatment. Machiavelli negotiations systematically about the Roman Empire and its swayers. Particularly, he stresses the importance of holding a strong ground forces and popular support by the ground forces and the people. The Roman emperors proved to us many times that a swayer who is perceived to be weak is the most vulnerable to assail. Alexander Severus was controlled by his female parent and considered feminine by his military personnels. He was a good swayer, but it was this visual aspect of failing that led his military personnels to kill him. Antonius Caracalla is another illustration of an erroneous swayer. He was a really strong military leader who was a great combatant. Unfortunately, he became an incredib ly cruel and rough swayer over clip, and therefore, he was killed by a centurion. Machiavelli besides includes the state of Italy into much of his Hagiographas. He hopes to repossess the land, which has been taken off from them. He feels that Italian princes have lost their provinces because they have non had armed people. Machiavelli tells us that an â€Å"armed population is a stable population† . However, when a prince is with his ground forcess and has a huge figure of soldiers functioning his authorities, # 8220 ; so it is above all necessary non to care about a name for inhuman treatment # 8221 ; . This is due to the fact that ground forcess are neer kept united, nor are they put together unless their leader is rough. Although non all topics can be armed, those who receive the particular intervention and are armed become obligated to the prince and will therefore be faithful. But when a prince disarms them, they may acquire offended and experience as if they are distrusted, which would bring forth feelings of hatred. The best possible safety cyberspace for a prince is to maintain his topics happy, armed and faithful. Not to be disliked by your people is the best possible fortress that a prince hopes to accomplish. In add-on, Machiavelli believes that a wise swayer should look to hold the virtuousness of clemency but in world, pattern inhuman treatment. Yet the grades of inhuman treatment may change. For case, a prince may take to be terrible in the beginning of his opinion and so be moderate after some clip. Machiavelli suggests that a prince must ever exhibit five virtuousnesss in peculiar: clemency, honestness, humanity, uprightness, and devoutness. It is critical that all of the swayers seem devout because people will blindly see the side of the swayer that he undertakings and wants them to see. For # 8220 ; work forces in general justice more by their eyes than custodies, because visual perception is given to everyone, touching to few # 8221 ; . Machiavelli goes on to state that hatred is acquired through the Acts of the Apostless of good and bad workss. Hence it is necessary for a prince, if he wants to keep himself, to larn to be able non to be good, and to utilize this and non utilize it harmonizing to necessity. Covering with the spiritual facets of the above written virtuousnesss, Machiavelli explains that the great princes of the past complete great things without taking religion into history. Yet, a prince has to be cunning and appear to hold religion. Furthermore, Machiavelli # 8217 ; s analogy of the fox and the king of beasts complies with the impression that a prince must cognize when to lead on his people. The fox represents the type of animate being that is cunning and the king of beasts signifies a feared animate being. Therefore, it is of import for a prince to cognize when to convey out these qualities and how to equilibrate their effects. He believes that people are already eager and ready to be deceived, and that # 8220 ; work forces are so simple and so obedient to show necessities that he who deceives will ever happen person who will allow themselves be deceived # 8221 ; . From this it appears that people will non consciously seek the truth in order to avoid confusion and struggle. Obviously, a swayer that encompasses the mere kernel of all of these virtuousnesss, when faced with a fluctuation of luck, is non bided by those qualities. He will be able to fall back to evil steps when forced by necessity. Indeed, to ho ld that signifier of purchase is of import for the success of the province. Furthermore, Machiavelli strongly argues that the generousness of a prince will harm him in the long tally. If a prince is unfeignedly generous, he has to be broad, which entails the qualities of luxury and extravagancy. As a consequence, the swayer will # 8220 ; devour all his resources in such workss # 8221 ; . In order to go on his liberalness he will be forced to be strict with revenue enhancements. Due to this facet the prince will be hated by his topics, and since he will be poverty- stricken, he will therefore be held with small respect. There is nil that is more self-consuming as generousness ; the more it is practiced, the less it will be able to go on to be practiced. The swayer will be despised and hapless that will do him genuinely hated. Above all, a swayer must guard against being hated. So, it is better to cultivate a repute for beastliness. If the people consider their swayer to be mean, they will still fear him because of that quality, but non detest him. Another ruin from a generous prince comes from the fact that work forces are pretentious, frivolous, # 8220 ; thankless, volatile, Pretenders and hypocrites, evaders of danger, tidal bore for addition # 8221 ; . A prince that has founded himself based on friendly relationships with other work forces is ruined. For friendly relationships can be traded for other promises, when acquired by money and turn out to be really undependable when they are needed. Men will non be loath to pique a swayer that is generous and efforts to do him loved. Regardless, a wise swayer should trust on what is under his control and capablenesss. Machiavelli has wondrous depicted the accomplishments a successful swayer must larn to continue solidness in his province. Even if a prince has to utilize immoral steps to guarantee the province # 8217 ; s good being, Machiavelli finds this justifiable in the kingdom of political relations. For this is a cardinal component that Machiavelli portrays in # 8220 ; The Prince # 8221 ; . Cipher wants to assist a weak individual without profiting from his or her services, that is human nature # 8217 ; s manner of thought. Therefore, Machiavelli stresses that it is imperative that a swayer be feared and derive this repute through his ain actions. However, Machiavelli states his points on why a prince should avoid being hated if he plans to go on to govern even if he has to be fallacious and corrupt.

Hazing Essays (1367 words) - , Term Papers

Hazing Hazing Hazing Thesis: Hazing is a cruel way of being initiated into a fraternity. I. What is hazing? II. Why is it illegal? III. What are some actions of hazing A. Where it occurs B. Deaths IV. Why it is socially accepted V. Signs that hazing might be occurring Definitions 1) Hazing: any act that embarrasses or harms ones health, in order to be initiated into a group. 2) Fraternity: a college organization. 3) Alcohol: a substance that alters ones mental ability. 4) Chapter house: a fraternity house. Introduction: Hazing is any action or activity which does not contribute to the positive development of a persons; which inflicts or causes physical or mental harm, which degrades a person, regardless of location, intent, or consent of participants. This action could or may intentionally or unintentionally endanger a student's admission to an organization. Unfortunately hazing has been a common practice across college campuses. Many agree that hazing has no place on campus and should be eliminated.(Pledges vs. Hazing) Plain and simple, hazing can be dangerous! Not only does it kill innocent people, but mocks, embarrasses and tortures them. This causes physical, mental, or emotional harm, or distress. In New York State hazing is illegal. A person is charged with first-degree class A misdemeanor. There are anti-hazing laws in every state except Arizona, Alaska, Colorado, Hawaii, Montana, Michigan, Oregon, Nevada, New Mexico, and Vermont.(Stop Hazing) Hazing expels and jails people and closes chapters and raises organizational dues. There are no winners in hazing. This tradition that teaches respect for the group and its members should be replaced with another tradition education.(Hazing) Actions of hazing include, keeping dates and time of initiation a secret, making new members use separate entrances to the house. Paddling or striking, marking or branding. Phone duty, treasure hunts or road trips. Forcing exercise, forced to carry items such as Paige4 rocks, matches coins, books, paddles etc. Preventing class attendance or sleep, forced to eat or drink. Working parties for new members only, preventing personal hygiene, causing indecent exposure. Physical harassment such as pushing, cursing or shouting etc. Required dressing in opposite sex's clothes, attending in a Hell week activities before being initiated. Practice periods of silence, and any other activity, which may result in physical, emotional, or mental harm. Two fraternity pledges were killed in Louisiana State University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Both died of alcohol poisoning after fraternity members supplied them with alcohol and coerced them to drink. They drank themselves to death. A student at Texas University, died after the Cowboys picnic. He drowned in a nearby creek with a blood alcohol level three times the legal limit. The organization was banned for five years and upon returning two or more years on probation. In Boston, in 1997, an investigation was conducted after a former fraternity member binge drank and died. Scott Krueger, 18, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, died following a night of binge drinking at a fraternity. The Sigma Chi fraternity was investigated for hazing after the house was caught on fire. Candles were lit for and initiation. The fraternity was charged with hazing and suspended until May 1999. In February 1994, in Missouri State University, Micheal Davis blacked out after going through a seven station circle of physical abuse. Davis suffered from lacerated kidney and liver, broken ribs and bruises on his upper body. In another incident, 10 cadets of the Citadel Military College were charged with hazing. Two women cadets reported that they were victims of hazing. Their clothes were set on fire while wearing them. At Alfred University in New York, a football game was forfeited due to hazing of veteran teammates. Five freshmen players were allegedly treated for alcohol poisoning after an off-campus party. The Chi Upsilon was found guilty of hazing. It was over heard that new members were to sleep in a tent, only given hot chocolate and blankets, outside a cabin. In December 1993, fraternity Sigma Alpha Epsilon was suspended for making pledges stand in the middle of a Ring of Fire. The members are required to attend on and a half-hour class about hazing. A frat house at Dickinson College was closed after a hazing tragedy. A pledge fell out of the window after vast amounts of alcohol. The University of Colorado was suspended following a hazing incident where a pledge was forced to

Social class and educational opportunities The WritePass Journal

Social class and educational opportunities Introduction Social class and educational opportunities Introduction1. Social Class and Education2. The Right to Education3. The Notion Of Meritocracy  4. Education and Social Inequalities  5. Cultural and Social Capital6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Language Codes7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Social Mobility8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Education, Markets, and Economy9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Opportunity TrapConclusionRelated Introduction Social class and educational opportunities is one of the most important issues of educational policy the last decades (Silver, 1973). This essay provides me the opportunity to analyze the relation between social class inequalities and education and to highlight that nowadays education cannot overturn inequalities. The first section of this essay is an attempt to define social classes and to give information about education the previous century, the second section is about the human rights in education, the third section gives useful information about the notion of meritocracy, the next section of this essay is about the findings of sociology of education about the educational inequalities, the next two sections explore the theories of cultural and social capital, and the theory of language codes, chapter seven is about the issue of social mobility which is associated with the equal opportunities of education, chapter eight is about the connection the connection between education and markets and economy. The last chapter is about the problem of ‘opportunity trap’.    1. Social Class and Education It is quite important to analyse the concept of social class before we go into the procedure of analysis of this topic. There are structures that delimit the circumstances and restrict human behaviour in which individuals are socialized and they are transformed to social beings, the first attempt of identification of these structures was the theory of historical materialism (Hickey, 2000). Marx and Engels were the first who had tried to analyze the structure and the struggles of social classes in the European capitalism of the 19th century (Hickey, 2000). According to Marx: ‘‘classes are large groups of people differing from each other by the place they occupy in historically determined system of social production, by their relation to the means of production, by their role in the social organisation of labour, by the dimension of the share of the social wealth of which they dispose and their made of acquiring it’’ (Hill: 172). Moreover, Frederick Engels who had tried to create an adequate theory to Marxism had claimed that social classes could be realised as a complex interaction based on three key aspects, social and economic background and political power, the extent of social mobility defines social class boundaries, class is not the only reason which causes tha social differentiation, in some situations political power and social background determine the social standing more than social class (Hickey, 2000). Another approach of social classes based on the works of Weber, he believed that economic power is one of the most important factors which guides the construction of social classes, and that there is a connection between life chances, possession of goods and property and all of them are guided by the strict regulations of market exchange (Johnston, 2007). On the other hand, definition of social class is quite difficult. According to Bourdieu: ‘‘class and class fraction is defined not only by its position in the relations of production, as identified through indices such as occupation, income or even educational level, but also by a certain sex-ratio, a certain distribution in geographical space (which is never socially neutral) and by a whole set of subsidiary characteristics which may function, in the form of tacit requirements, as real principles of selection or exclusion without ever being formally stated (this is the case with ethnic origin and sex). A number of official criteria in fact serve as a mask for hidden criteria: for example, the requiring of a given diploma can be a way of demanding a particular social origin’’ (Bourdieu, 1984: 96). It is obvious that society is divided into social classes, there are people who have economic, social, and political power and people who live under conditions such as poverty. There is an inequality of opportunities among different social classes, those from the lower they do not have the same opportunities in many aspects of social life such as education. This is obvious if we consider that before the mid-20th century and the explosion of equal opportunities theories individuals from the lower social classes do not have equal opportunities (Young, 1961). However, the last decades there was an attempt education to become more democratic and it is considered as a public good.   According to Hodgson (1998): ‘‘education is no longer the exclusive preserve of a particular social class or the select few’’ (Hodgson, 1998: 8). 2. The Right to Education The Supreme Court of United States in 1954 claimed that: ‘‘ [i]n these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he [or she] is denied the opportunity of an education’’ (Hodgson, 1998: ). We can assume that education offers people the opportunity to live a better and successful life, and all people should have the right of access in education. As a result, many governments and global organisations try to raise the rates of access in education and to help people from the lower social classes to have equal opportunities. Many Covenants and Conventions have taken place around the world targeting on the promotion of equal opportunities in education. In 1948, ‘The Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (UDHR) has stated that: ‘‘Article 26   Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit’’(un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml). In 1950, ‘The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms’ has stated that: ‘’First Protocol, Article 2 No person shall be denied the right to education’’ (http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=005CL=ENG). In 1966, the ‘International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ has stated that: ‘‘Article 13 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The States Parties †¦ recognize the right of everyone to education 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To achieve [ing] the full realisation of this right: a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational secondary education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education’’ In 1989, the ‘Convention on the Rights of the Child’ has stated that: ‘‘Article 28 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equality of opportunity, they shall, in particular: a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Make primary education compulsory and available free to all b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Encourage the development of different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational education, make them available and accessible †¦ and take appropriate measures such as the introduction of free education and †¦ financial assistance c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity’’ However, all of these are not policies, but international treaties, which help goverments to enact human rights to their countries. It is obvious that these treaties targeting on widening the access to education helping people from the lower social classes to have equal opportunities in education. Moreover, if we study the educational systems in many European countries we will realise that all of these treaties were almost fulfiled, the majority of European countries have established compulsory education between the ages of 5 to 16 years old and compulsory education is free of charge (http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/eurybase_en.php). Furthermore, equal access to higher education is one of the most important dimensions of ‘Bologna Process’. According to London Communique in 2007: ‘‘Higher education should play a strong role in fostering social cohesion, reducing inequalities and raising the level of knowledge, skills and competences in society. Policy should therefore aim to maximise the potential of individuals in terms of their personal development and their contribution to a sustainable and democratic knowledge-based society. We share the societal aspiration that the student body entering, participating in and completing higher education at all levels should reflect the diversity of our populations. We reaffirm the importance of students being able to complete their studies without obstacles related to their social and economic background. We therefore continue our efforts to provide adequate student services, create more flexible learning pathways into and within higher education, and to widen participation at all levels on the basis of equal opportunity.’’(London Communique, 2007: 5).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is obvious that all of these treaties helped to the reduction of social class inequalities in education, and, as a result, many people can assume that we live in a society which is based on the notion of meritocracy.    3. The Notion Of Meritocracy   The notion of meritocracy assumes that every individual has the same opportunities in education and as a result is themselves which should be blamed for the failure in educational attainment, the concept of meritocracy is associated with liberalism which is rooted in Enlightment, liberalism constructs an aspect of society which is fair and egalitarian where people rise and fall and this function based on individuals merits, it represents a society which fair competition creates inequalities (Zamudio, Russel, Rios, Bridgeman,   2011). According to Young (1961): ‘‘Today all persons, however humble, know they have had every chance. They are again and again. If on one occasion they are off-colour, they have a second, a third and fourth opportunity to demonstrate their ability. But if they have been labelled ‘dunce’ repeatedly they cannot any longer pretend; their image of themselves is more nearly a true, unflattering, reflection. Are they not bound to recognize that they have an inferior status – not in the past because they were denied opportunity; but because they are inferior’’ (Young,1961, pp. 107-108). The fact that we live in the era of meritocracy make us think that differences in educational attainment between children from different social classes do not exist anymore, and all students have the same opportunities. However, there are some sociological approaches which claim that there are still substantial differences. 4. Education and Social Inequalities Although, there are policies that widening access in education, inequalities based on property and income very often determine educational attainment, it is obvious that students from the lower social classes have more chances and opportunities, however, there are still substantial differences (Hatcher, 2000). There are some sociological approaches which support that education is a mean of social reproduction. Education creates inequalities and the children from the higher social classes use the distinctions created by schools to reproduce and reassure   their position in the social structure (Tomlinson, 2005). Pierre Bourdieu had stated that the educational system plays an important role to the reproduction both of power and symbolic relations across social classes, education reproduces the existing social structures (Banks, 1971). School prepares students for the role that they should fulfil in the contemporary society and economy, as a result, the manipulation of educational system is quite important (Banks, 1971). Furthermore, Bowles and Gintis, had stated that differences in educational attainment between children from different social classes are attributed to the unfair distribution of resources and this is more important than the inequalities of the structural system of society (Cole, 1988). They believed that schools organisation promotes and support the reproduction and legitimation of inequalities, education prepares individuals for the capitalist economy and not for the expanded opportunities in their lives, education serves the capitalist economy and not the fair purpose of personal development (Bowles Ginits, 1976). School is one of the most important social institutions because it produces the next generations of workers, which some of them will have well-paid jobs and some students will not, as a consequence, produces the next generations of people that they will be placed in the higher social classes and people that they will be placed in the lower social classes reassuring the contemporary social structure and the capitalist economy (Hatcher, 2000). Education it is used by the higher social classes to reassure and secure their dominance over the lower social classes, people from the lower social backgrounds do not have the opportunity to influence policies and to be the main beneficiaries of them (Reay, 2001). We can assume that the notion of meritocracy is just   a myth because it does not examine some factors which cause inequalities such as capitalism, class, racism and patriarchy, equal opportunities in education act as an equalizer of inequalities but the notion of meritocracy and liberalism avoid to examine the contradictions that take place between this belief and the reality of inequalities in education (Zamudio, Russel, Rios, Bridgeman,   2011). Although, many governments have tried to eliminate social class inequalities in education, many students from the lower social classes do not have equal opportunities. There are some sociological theories such as the theory of social and cultural capital, and the theory of language codes which highlight   the educational inequalities.   5. Cultural and Social Capital The social and cultural capital of students is a very important factor which enhances the inequalities in education. There are some sociologists who have tried to shed light on this issue with the theory of social and cultural capital (Bourdieu 1986, Coleman 1988, Hargreaves 2001). According to Bourdieu (1986), cultural capital has three forms, the objectified,   the embodied and the institutionalized state. The embodied state deals with the culture and the cultivation, and cannot be direct transmitted and depends on the investor’s personal investment (Bourdieu, 1986). The objectified state deals with the possession and access in cultural goods such as books and pictures and the institutionalized state deals with the original properties of cultural capital such as educational qualifications (Bourdieu, 1986).   In the field of education cultural capital is quite important because according to Bourdieu (1973): ‘‘academic success is directly dependent upon cultural capital and on the inclination to invest in the academic market’’ (Bourdieu, 1973: 96). Moreover, children from the higher social classes feel familiar with the school, they have better communication with the teachers and much more chances to succeed in school whereas the children from the lower social classes do not feel comfortable in school because the environment in school, is totally different with the environment in their homes (Dumais, 2002). On the other hand, social capital is connected with the possesion and participation in a durable network based on institutionalized relationships of recognition, these networks provide to their members the ‘credential’ which render them capable of crediting in the various aspects of the social world (Bourdieu, 1986). The size and the connections that they take place in this network play an important role when we refer to the volume of this kind of capital, individuals that participate could have benefits from the connections with other individuals, in the form of cultural, symbolic and economic capital, howerer the reproduction and maintance of social capital demands a continuous effort of sociability (Bourdieu, 1986). Moreover, Coleman (1988) he claimed that the only way to define social capital is by its operation, social capital is consisted of some different entities which they have two similar elements, the fact that they contain some perspectives of social structures, moreover, they support and make easier some certain actions within the social structure which are taken place by the individuals, social capital exists among the structural connections among individuals or corporate individuals, it comes from the changes among the relationships between actors that help and support certain actions (Coleman, 1988). Furthermore, according to Hargreaves (2001), social capital can be understood as a both private and public good, its private form is quite important because helps individuals to succeed in their lives, as a public good is an essential component to the creation of communities, it helps people to create social groups and networks and when the social capital of these groups and networks becomes strong renders the participants capable of resolving much more easier their collective problems (Hargreaves, 2001). These aspects of social and cultural capital render us capable of understanding, up to a point, the reasons of social class inequalities when we talk about equal opportunities in education. For example, the theory of cultural capital help us to realize that children form families with high cultural capital have access to cultural goods and of course their parents with their knowledge guide them and help them to succeed in school and university. In addition, there is also more interaction between the members of a higher social status family and children participate in conversation with adults whereas in the lower social status families, children do not participate actively in discourses with adults, as a result, these children should build alone their construction of reality (Banks, 1971). It is obvious that education promotes these inequalities because there are not any effective educational policies which target on the elimination of cultural and social capital differences. Students with high social and cultural capital, have more chances to succeed in education. School’s culture represents the culture of the higher social classes and educational systems reinforce these inequalities (Dumais, 2002). 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Language Codes Apart from, the theories of social and cultural capital, there is another form of social class inequalities which promotes inequalities in education. The theory of language codes which based on the works of Basil Bernstein. Bernstein had tried, to connect the class differences in educational attainment with the class differences in the way which the different social classes use   the language (Banks, 1971). In the late 1950’s and 1960’s Basil Bernstein had tried to give an explanation to the low school performance of children from the working class and this attempt was based on the theory of language codes (Silver, 1973). Bernstein had stated that there are two different language codes, the restricted code which usually is used from the ‘working class’ families and the elaborated code that frequently used from the middle and higher social class families (Banks, 1968).   Although, the majority of working class children used the restricted code the official language of school is the elaborated one, and this is obvious that affect badly the school performance of students from the lower social classes. This is obvious if we consider that when children go to the primary school, there are some students who already know how to speak and write the language of the school, as a result, there is a gap in the school performance between these students and the students who are not familiar with this language. Students who know who to write and read have more chances to do well in school. Unfortunately, there are not any educational policies to reverse these inequalities. 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Social Mobility The lack of policies which target on the elimination of inequalities in education, affects social mobility. The connection between education attainment and social class is very important and substantial because it correlates with the social mobility (Boudon, 1974), and it is obvious that the notion of social mobility would not have existed if social inequalities had not taken place in our society. According to, Aldridge, social mobility: ‘‘describes the movement or opportunities for movement between different social groups and the advantages and disadvantages that go with this in terms of income, security of employment opportunities for advancement etc ’’ (Aldridge, 2001: 1). Although, educational attainment improved across all the individuals from different classes, substantial differences according to social backgrounds still exist (Fitz, Davies, Evans, 2006). Social origin determines individuals destination and that it is obvious when we think that people with the same qualifications do not have frequently similar class destinations (Fitz, Davies, Evans, 2006). The connection between social origin and educational attainment is extremely strong,   there are four factors that determine this connection, firstly, the poverty, very often prevents children from the lower social classes to succeed in education because they do not have enough money to buy for example, their books, secondly, family plays an important role because it is very common for the families from the lower social classes not to have many expectations from their children when it comes to education, thirdly, the neighbourhood is very important factor because the social groups that people participate in are quite important, moreover, school-based factor determine in many cases the connection between social origin and educational attainment, because some schools do not have the appropriate funds to provide to their students qualitative education (Miliband, 2003). It is obvious that social inequalities reduce the chances of social mobility, students from the higher social classes have more chances to have better educational careers and qualifications from students from the lower social classes (Shavit Blossfeld, 1993), although, the existing notion of meritocracy and the educational reform and policies that have taken place the last decades.   On the other hand, the ideas of equality of opportunities which are related to liberalism and meritocracy, helped many people from the lower social class to have different class destinations, especially, the 1960’s, because until then education was privilege of the higher social classes (Tomlinson, 2005). However, a lot of students especially those from the lower social classes have not the same opportunities. Although, our society based on the notions of liberalism and meritocracy, there is a link between social class and educational attainment, prevent them from any chance of social mobility. It is obvious that without social mobility, inequalities based on social class will not be reduced. Moreover, nowadays, there is a connection between education and economy, as a result, inequalities become more obvious. 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Education, Markets, and Economy As it was mentioned before, the notion of meritocracy is associated with liberalism (Zamudio, Russel, Rios, Bridgeman,   2011), this happens because it suits with the current, free market policies and theories (Crawford, 2010). Nowadays, education is an important factor because promotes and enhances the competitiveness and the economic productivity (Ball, 2008). The global economic competition has change dramatically the function and the purpose of education, education should prepare students to meet the demands of economy, the assumptions of economish clearly determine educational systems (Ball, 2008). Moreover, education should improve individual’s skills, it should create a productive workforce according to the theory of human capital (Tomlinson, 2005) which suggests that education and ability are crucial factors for individuals, because highly skilled people are more productive and as a result they can find a better job in the job market. We live in the era of ‘knowledge economy’. This idea firstly introduced in a book of Drucker (1966) which called ‘The Effective Executive’, offering a clear description to the differences between the duties of a worker that work in his era, and the duties of a worker in the knowledge economy (Ball, 2008). The whole educational system should ensure and promote a base of specialised workers with the appropriate skills flexible and lifelong learning methods should replace the traditional methods supporting the idea of ‘knowledge economy’ (Ball, 2008). Tony Blair in   a speech when he was a Prime Minister (1997-2007) confirmed the important role of education as a mechanism of economic policy, however, the first sings of the forthcoming connection between education and economy appeared in 1976, when the Prime Minister James Callaghan stated that schools should prepare students for the needs of employers (Ball, 2008). As a result, those who had been excluded from their right to education have not many chances to find a well-paid job, students from the lower social classes do not have the same opportunities in social mobility. It is obvious that without the appropriate educational policies, the connection between education and economy will make the inequalities in education much more obvious, reproducing the current social structure. However, as we have mentioned, nowadays, all people have more chances to succeed in education (Young, 1961), the majority of people have the right of access in education, but this, create another important social problem, the problem of the ‘opportunity trap’. 9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Opportunity Trap Although, the negative effects of the capitalist economy and liberalism in education, it is obvious that all individuals have typically the same opportunities in education. There is a wide access in every educational level regardless the social origin of individuals. The massive higher education, and policies that are targeting on the knowledge economy, enhance the notion that individuals have the same opportunities, social and economic policies render education as a crucial factor of delivering social justice and global prosperity (Brown, 2006). People have a lot of expectations from education because as we have mentioned those with higher human capital have more chances to find a good job, as a result, there is an increasing positional competition because people try to find alternative ways to avoid the social congestion around some of the most famous and well-known schools, and universities (Brown, 2006). However, these alternative ways such as private tutors, it raises the requirements that are appropriate to enter universities or employment, this is called ‘opportunity trap’ (Brown, 2006). The relations between nation-state, capitalism, and democracy are the roots of the opportunity trap, the expansion of higher education made people   believe that they have the same opportunities but the labour market is not possible to go with the high expectations of individuals and as a result, inequalities become stronger and stronger (Brown, 2006). As a result, some basic levels of income and employment should be ensured by governments because this is crucial factor of social justice,   however, the educational reforms did not seem to serve satisfactorily the needs of individuals and the needs of society (Tomlinson, 2005). A research that was conducted in 2010 by the ‘Hellenic Statistical Authority’(Index) provide us the opportunity to realize the issue of ‘opportunity trap’. The study of the unemployment rates the period between 2005 and 2010, make us capable of understanding the effects of ‘opportunity trap’. We can see that unemployment affects more young people, given, that the majority of them are probably have a university degree, however, it is difficult to draw reliable conclusions because unfortunately the ‘Hellenic Statistical Authority’ does not provide information regarding the level of their education and social origin. The fact that the majority of them at least have attended compulsory education because Greece has established compulsory education between the ages of 6 to 15 years old and the fact that it is sure that some of them have attended tertiary education help us to understand what it means ‘opportunity trap’. Although, it is obvious that a connection between the labour market and education is appropriate, governments did not achieve in giving a radical solution to this issue (Tomlinson, 2005). Moreover, unemployment affects the social cohesion, educational policies failed to connect labour market with education because these policies were partial and not well-organised (Green, Preston, Janmaat, 2006). Governments found it extremely difficult to connect job market with education (Brown, 2006). As a result, a lot of people face unemployment. We can easily realize that unemployment is a usual phenomenon to those from the lower social classes, because those from the higher social classes have more chances to succeed in education and to have access in the best universities in the world. Thus, they can use all the advantages from their social, economic and cultural origin and together with their educational credentials to find a well-paid job. Conclusion It is obvious that although there is a growth in the rates of access in education this does not mean that there is a reduction in the relation between social class and equal opportunities (Husen, 1972). Economic and social background very often determines the opportunities in many aspects of social life (Boudon, 1974). The last decades several educational policies adopted to eliminate inequalities in education, which they targeted on the raise of the rates of access in education, but they failed because they did not take into account factors such as cultural and social capital and language codes which clearly affects school performance. Policy makers should realise that they should adopt policies which will help students from the lower social classes to overcome their problems. Moreover, they should understand that it is difficult equal opportunities to be achieved when the same education is offered to all students (Morris, 2002), educational policies should target on the elimination of differences between students from different social classes, and to help students from the disadvantaged social and economic groups   to have the same starting point with students from the higher social classes. Furtermore, the connection between education and economy makes inequalities even more obvious and powerful, people with the appropriate skills and knowledge have more chances to raise their earnings in the job market (Youn, 1988), as a result, people from the lower social classes do not have equal opportunities of social mobility. On the other hand, education itself is not a means of social reproduction. There is a lack of appropriate educational policies which will eliminate social class inequalities. According to Socrates, education can place people in their correct position in the society, helping them to realize the meaning of justice, education can make people capable of understanding what is the best for them and for the society (Spring, 2006), as a result, people will have the knowledge to overturn social class inequalities because education will equip them with the knowledge to tackle inequalities and it will help them to create a new, equal society. I firmly believe that education nowadays cannot eliminate inequalities, because policy makers have not adopted the appropriate policies, however, we cannot blame education that reproduces and maintains inequalities because if one day the appropriate educational policies will be adopted, we can hope for a better and more equal society.

Assessment Techniques for Evaluating Student Progress Essay

Assessment Techniques for Evaluating Student Progress - Essay Example While formal assessment offers accountability in an education system that calls for measured results, informal assessment is a method that can bring about improvement since it gives a student the ability to evaluate self and to see individually how further learning can lead to success. The two major types of formal assessment are 1) norm-referenced tests and 2) criterion-referenced tests. Both depend on a particular standard, but norm is based on a comparison with other students taking the same test, and criterion-referenced tests measure student ability within a course of study. The student's performance is compared to an established level of achievement for each task or unit of the curriculum (Rothenbacher & Leconte, 1990). The broad definition of curriculum as it relates to this paper is "all the learning planned and guided by the school, whether in groups or individually inside or outside the school" (Kelly, 1983). This type of assessment depends on standardized tests, which are administered annually by school districts and provide a ready source of data. These tests are administered across a large number of students for the purpose of comparing individual performance to the rest of the group. Also, because test publishers provide information about the tests' reliability and validity, the results are generally accepted by educators and the community. In addition, in a structured classroom setting, students have immediate access to assistance and might enjoy the social environment a formal classroom provides. A.2 Criterion-referenced Assessment This method offers a quick analysis that measures students against a set objective or criterion. It also eliminates competition and because the student is not measured by how his or her peers are doing, self-evaluation can bring about a higher level of self-esteem. Based on standardized testing, a result can be determined by a standardized checklist or rubrics, which offers validity within the system. Criterion-referenced assessment might be categorized as either formal or informal. Disadvantages of Formal Assessment Techniques B.1 Norm-referenced Assessment The test results, because they are compared to the results of other students, don't always determine the ability of the individual student. A standardized test is discriminatory because the curve favors high scorers, and lower-scoring students are automatically placed at the bottom. Therefore the actual ability of the test taker is not measured. Standardized tests, especially norm-referenced tests, are the same across all student levels and geographical areas and therefore set up an unrealistic result with the assumption that all students are the same. B.2 Criterion-referenced Assessment Although this system offers more areas of evaluation for individual students, the end result is a standard measurement. Educators sometimes base their evaluation of a student's ability on the overall results instead of looking at an individual's response to different units within the curriculum. A set standard, no matter how informal it may seem, is still structured and the